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how to study pathophysiology

How to Study Pathophysiology?

Newsletter How to Study Pathophysiology? What is Pathophysiology? Pathophysiology (also called physiopathology) is a combination of pathology and physiology. In pathophysiology, we study the mechanical, physical, and biochemical changes inside our body that occur either due to a disease or resulting from a syndrome. Pathophysiology is a subject that you must understand the process and not to memorize by heart,  like memorizing drug names. So to study pathophysiology, you should make sure that you know anatomy and physiology, because they are connected to each other. However, I would say that pathophysiology is one of the most important subjects you should study if you’re a student in medicine, nursing or any health related course dealing with human lives. Because you should understand why a patient is presenting with certain clinical signs and symptoms and why you are performing certain investigations and interventions.  Click the button below to Download 570+ High-Yield Medical Presentations in Emergencies, Clinical Medicine, Gynaecology, Obstetrics, Surgery, and Orthopedics Rish Academy Medical Notes Get LIFETIME Access to 570+ Medical Presentations How to study Pathophysiology? Pathophysiology is one of the difficult subjects, yet interesting subject in medical school. Your knowledge in Pathophysiology will help you throughout your carrier, also one day it will be lifesaving. We’ve explained all of the most effective methods to study Pathophysiology to cut your study time in half and retain more to score highest marks in your exams.  1) Create a suitable environment to study Creating a good learning environment allows you to maximize your learning efficiency. Combination of effective time management, good reading and note taking skills, Illustration skills, creating effective test taking strategies and your hard work will give you a productive outcome. Identify all of your environmental distractions that interfere with your concentration. STARVE YOUR DISTRACTIONS, FEED YOUR FOCUS! That’s the key to success. 2) Know your basic Anatomy & Physiology Remember! Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology are not just for exams, they are for life. You don’t have to be a genius in Anatomy and Physiology, but you should know the basics to understand the Pathology and what happens inside the body in diseases. So if you’re going to study the pathology of the brain in coming week, just go through your basic anatomical structure of the brain, surrounding structures, their blood supply, and lobes of the brain controls each function and the physiology of the brain. So, when you go to lecture and your professor is talking about stroke, you will clearly understand how the blood clot blocks the cerebral artery and functions affected by the particular brain lobe supplied by the artery.  Download Pathophysiology & Clinical Medicine Flashcards eBook Sample of Pathophysiology Made Easy Flashcards eBook 3) Know teaching style of your professor! Every professor is different in their teaching style. Some may give you study notes prior to lectures, so you can have a basic idea before you go to the lecture. Some professors require students to learn by themselves using textbooks and through research. If you have such professors, you can ask your seniors to see how they studied the subject.  Some professors give you homework and assignments based on the theories that are mainly assessed in the exams. So you should focus more on such topics and related questions. 4) Collect resources to study There are actually a lot of resources available to you to make your studying endeavors easier. You should use all of the resources and a combination of learning techniques to maximize your studying effectiveness and reinforce the concepts in pathophysiology. You can take advantage of your textbooks, class handouts, reading materials, and lab material your professor provides, and also there are many Online Study Resources & Notes that are accessible to students. Textbooks: Always use standard textbooks for your studies. They provide you the highly reliable resources. Because you can clarify your doubts or read up on a chapter you’re not familiar with. Reading materials: You should always study your reading materials and notes provided by your university. Because they will provide notes from chapters focusing on what you must know for your exams. Google: Google is always our best friend to search on any topic. You can search mnemonics, diagrams and word associations to make your learning easy. But always make sure that you refer from a trusted sources. Because not everything you find in google is 100% true. I always use and recommend websites like Medscape, PubMed and MayoClinic for high quality and reliable articles. YouTube: There are many YouTubers who make our learning easy. Many complex topics in Pathophysiology are explained in an easy way on YouTube. This is especially helpful for the students who are visual or aural learners. You can get access to our Medical Resources Library to get access to more than 300 medical presentations and all other medical resources that will be helpful for your entire career.  Get Access to Medical Resources Library Some slides from the presentations from our Medical Resources Library 5) Don’t memorize the facts, UNDERSTAND IT!  You can’t memorize the facts without understanding it. You can put all the mechanism in a flowchart and you can make study sheet for each disease. If you try to memorize the facts, you’ll forget them very easily. So you have to understand the pathophysiological process that happens in a disease.  6) Take Notes You don’t remember everything you hear, but when you write down notes, it will help you retain more information. Sometimes you even don’t understand everything your professor teaches in the class. But when you get back to your home, you’ll understand it more clearly when you revise the notes you’ve taken. These notes will be so helpful in understanding the theories in books and your reading materials given by your institute.  Also, these notes are the secret behind scoring high marks in your exams. You can focus more on these notes before your exams and they will be useful to answer your MCQs from theories that are not covered in your reading materials.  Professors

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Endocrine System Mnemonics

Newsletter Endocrine System Mnemonics These 34 MNEMONICS will be useful for you to remember the hormones in the endocrine system. In this article, we’ve listed the most useful mnemonics for the endocrine system. 1) 7 products in the Anterior Pituitary FLAT PEG Mnemonic for Anterior Pituitary Hormones is one of the most popular and useful mnemonics.  “FLAT PEG“ Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) Lutinizing hormone (LH) Adrenocorticotropin hormone (aCTH) Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) Prolactin Endorphins Growth hormone (GH) 2) Adrenal cortex layers and products “Go Find Rex, Make Good Sex” Layers :  Glomerulosa Fasiculata Reticulata Respective products : Mineralcorticoids Glucocorticoids Sex hormones 3) Anterior Pituitary hormones “FLAG TOP“ FSH – Follicle stimulating hormone LH – Luteinizing hormone ACTH – Adrenocorticotropic hormone GH – Growth hormone TSH – Thyroid-stimulating hormone MSH – MelanOcyte Stimulating Hormone Prolactin3 Click the button below to Download 570+ High-Yield Medical Presentations in Emergencies in Medicine Study Resources, Orthopedics Study Resources, Gynaecology & Obstetrics Study Resources, Surgery Study Resources, and Clinical Medicine Get Lifetime Access to 570+ Medical Presentations 4) Progesterone actions “PROGESTE“ Produce cervical mucous Relax uterine smooth muscle Oxycotin sensitivity down Gonadotropin [FSH, LH] secretions down Endometrial spiral arteries and secretions up Sustain pregnancy Temperature up / Tit development Excitability of myometrium down 5) Hyperthyroidism Signs and Symptoms “THYROIDISM“ Tremor Heart rate up Yawning [fatigability] Restlessness Oligomenorrhea & amenorrhea Intolerance to heat Diarrhea Irritability Sweating Muscle wasting & weight loss 6) Cause of Hypercalcemia “SHIFT” in Calcium Sarcoidosis and other granulomatous diseases Hyperparathyroidism, Hyperthyroidism, Hypervitaminosis A, and D. Immobilization (increased bone resorption) Familial (Familial Hypocalciuric Hypercalcemia) Tumors, Thiazide diuretics, LiThium 7) Clinical features of Cushing’s Syndrome ”MOON FACIES” Menstrual disorders Osteopenia or Osteoporosis Obesity (Central distribution of fat) Neurosis (depression or psychosis) Face (Plethora, hirsutism, acne) Altered muscle physiology (proximal muscle weakness) Supra-Clavicular and Dorso-Cervical fat pads. Infection Elevated blood pressure Skin (Easy bruisability) Click the button below to learn more endocrine system mnemonics and mnemonics in other body systems.  Download our Medical MNEMONICS eBook 8) Hyperthyroidism Signs and Symptoms “MOM’S SO TIRED“ Memory loss Obesity Malar flush/ Menorrhagia Slowness (mentally and physically) Skin and hair dryness Onset gradual Tiredness Intolerance to cold Raised BP Energy levels fall Depression/ Delayed relaxation of reflexes 9) Causes of Addison’s disease / Adrenal insufficiency “ADDISON“ Autoimmune (Addison’s disease) Degenerative (amyloidosis) Drugs (e.g. ketoconazole) Infections (e.g. TB, HIV) Secondary (hypopituitarism) Others (adrenal bleeding) Neoplasia 10) Pheochromocytoma “Rule of 10’s” 10% extra-abdominal 10% malignant 10% bilateral 10% in children BUT 30% genetic/syndromic! 11) Pheochromocytoma – 8Ps of presentation Pallor (NOT flushing) Perspiration Panic Pain (headache) Postural dizziness Panic attack Palpitations Paradoxical hypertension in the setting of beta-receptor blockers 12) Insulinoma “Rule of 10’s” 10% are part of MEN1 syndrome 10% are multiple 10% are malignant 10% contain ectopic pancreatic tissue 13) Acute Pancreatitis ”I GET SMASHED” Idiopathic Gallstones Ethanol Trauma Steroids Mumps, Malignancy (Pancreatic cancer) Autoimmune Scorpion sting Hypercalcemia, Hypertriglyceridemia (Usually more than 1000mg/dL) ERCP Drugs (GLP-1 agonists) 14) Causes of hypoglycemia ”FEELING Dizzy” False hypoglycemia (pseudohypoglycemia not meeting Whipple’s criteria) Exogenous (insulin or insulin secretagogue) Ethanol Liver failure Immune dysfunction (stimulating anti-insulin antibodies) Neoplastic (Insulinoma or Sarcomas producing IGF-2) Glandular dysfunction (Pituitary insufficiency, Adrenal insufficiency) Drugs (quinolones, pentamidine, beta-blockers, ACE inhibitors) 15) Causes of Diabetic Ketoacidosis (6 Is) Infection (urinary or respiratory tract infections) Insulinopenia (absolute in type 1 diabetes, relative in type 2 diabetes) Infarction (silent myocardial infarction) Injury (significant trauma or stress) Index presentation (newly diagnosed type 1 diabetes) Issues of adherence to insulin therapy 16) Adrenal gland functions “ACTH“ Adrenergic functions Catabolism of proteins/ Carbohydrate metabolism T cell immunomodulation Hyper/ Hypotension (blood pressure control) 17) Aldosterone: regulation of secretion from adrenal cortex “RNAs“ Renin-angiotensin mechanism Na concentraton in blood ANP (atrial natriuretic peptide) Stress 18) Causes of Gynecomastia ”MAKE BREAST” Marijuana Alcohol Klinefelter syndrome Estrogen excess Baby (circulating maternal estrogens) Receptor blockers (Ketoconazole, calcium channel blockers, H2 Blockers) Elderly Antineoplastic agents (alkylating agents) Spironolactone Tumors (adrenal or testicular) Click the button below to Download 570+ High-Yield Medical Presentations in Emergencies in Medicine Study Resources, Orthopedics Study Resources, Gynaecology & Obstetrics Study Resources, Surgery Study Resources, and Clinical Medicine Get Lifetime Access to 570+ Medical Presentations  19) Hyperthyroidism Signs and Symptoms “MOM’S SO TIRED“ Memory loss Obesity Malar flush/ Menorrhagia Slowness (mentally and physically) Skin and hair dryness Onset gradual Tiredness Intolerance to cold Raised BP Energy levels fall Depression/ Delayed relaxation of reflexes  20) Causes of Addison’s disease / Adrenal insufficiency “ADDISON“ Autoimmune (Addison’s disease) Degenerative (amyloidosis) Drugs (e.g. ketoconazole) Infections (e.g. TB, HIV) Secondary (hypopituitarism) Others (adrenal bleeding) Neoplasia 21) Pheochromocytoma “Rule of 10’s” 10% extra-abdominal 10% malignant 10% bilateral 10% in children BUT 30% genetic/syndromic! 22) Pheochromocytoma – 8Ps of presentation Pallor (NOT flushing) Perspiration Panic Pain (headache) Postural dizziness Panic attack Palpitations Paradoxical hypertension in the setting of beta-receptor blockers 23) Insulinoma “Rule of 10’s” 10% are part of MEN1 syndrome 10% are multiple 10% are malignant 10% contain ectopic pancreatic tissue 24) Adrenal gland functions “ACTH“ Adrenergic functions Catabolism of proteins/ Carbohydrate metabolism T cell immunomodulation Hyper/ Hypotension (blood pressure control) 25) Aldosterone: regulation of secretion from adrenal cortex “RNAs“ Renin-angiotensin mechanism Na concentraton in blood ANP (atrial natriuretic peptide) Stress Click the button below to learn more endocrine system mnemonics and mnemonics in other body systems.  Download our Medical MNEMONICS eBook 26) Glucagon function “Mr. Gluca has Gone to the cAMP to bring out some Glucose“: Glucagon elevates glucose by cAMP mechanism. 27) We can remember when glucagon levels are high because…? It is secreted when GLUCose is “GONe” 28) Testicular hormones “I ATE“ Inhibin Androgens Testosterone Estrogen 29) Ovarian hormones  “PIE“ Progesterone Inhibin Estradiol 30) Steroid Hormones “PET CAT“ Progesterone Estrogen Testosterone (androgens) Cortisol (glucococorticoids) Aldosterone Thyroid 31) Tyrosine derivative hormones “DENT“ Dopamine EPI NE Thyroxine (T4 and T3) 32) Anabolic hormone “TIG“ Testosterone Insulin GH 33) Catabolic hormone “CAT G“ Cortisol Adrenaline( EPI) Thyroid Glucagon 34) Anion Gap Metabolic Acidosis  “MUDPILES“ MUDPILES is a good mnemonic for recalling the causes of high anion gap metabolic acidosis. Methanol Uremia Diabetic ketoacidosis Propylene Glycol

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celestamine

Celestamine

Newsletter Celestamine Celestamine belongs to the steroid family drugs and it contains Betamethasone and dexchlorpheniramine maleate as active ingredients. Celestamine (Betamethasone/dexchlorpheniramine) is commonly used to treat hypersensitivity or allergic reactions and inflammatory conditions. Buy Celestamine Online Mechanism of action Betamethasone which is an active ingredient of Celestamine is a synthetic glucocorticoid (steroids) with metabolic, immunosuppressive and anti-inflammatory activities. Betamethasone binds to a specific intracellular glucocorticoid receptors and subsequently binds to DNA to modify gene expression which induced the synthesis of certain anti-inflammatory proteins while the synthesis of some inflammatory mediators is reduced. Therefore Betamethasone causes overall reduction in autoimmune reactions and chronic inflammation, thus reduces natural immune response of the body. Dexchlorpheniramine is an alkylamine, and first-generation histamine receptor antagonist with anti-allergic activity. Dexchlorpheniramine competitively antagonises H1 receptors, thereby inhibiting the actions of histamine on H1 Histamine receptors on bronchial smooth muscle, capillaries and gastrointestinal smooth muscle. The antagonistic action of Dexchlorpheniramine inhibits the actions of endogenous histamine, thereby preventing histamine-induced bronchoconstriction, vasodilation, increased capillary permeability, and GI smooth muscle spasms, therefore used to treat allergic conditions such as hay fever or urticaria.  We’ve discussed the pharmacology of most common & essential drugs, & their Mechanism of actions, contraindications, cautions, side effects, use in pregnancy, use in breast feeding, adult dose, pediatric dose in our Pharmacology Made Easy eBook.  Download Now Betamethasone is used as an ingredient of Celestamine in some countries such as :  Brazil Chile Hong Kong Indonesia Japan Paraguay Philippines South Africa Venezuela Dexchlorpheniramine is used as an ingredient of Celestamine in Hong Kong. Buy Celestamine Online Indications / Diseases where Celestamine is used: Perennial allergic rhinitis Severe bronchial asthma Serum sickness Hay fever (pollenosis) Drug reactions Atopic dermatitis (eczema) Contact dermatitis Inflammatory ocular disorders Iridocyclitis Uveitis Keratitis Conjunctivitis Non-granulomatous iritis Chorioretinitis and Choroiditis Celestamine Dosage Dose of Celestamine depends on the patient’s response to the drug and the severity of the illness. In the case, the conditions are better; the dosage should be reduced little by little until it is reduced to a minimum. After reaching the lowest dose, it should be suspended slowly. For people older than 12 years, an initial dose of 1 or 2 tablets (1 or 2 tablespoons) is prescribed for four times a day. It is best to take the dose after a filling meal or at bedtime. Do not increase the dose of Celestamine Ns in more than eight tablets or 8 tablespoons in the case of Celestamine Ns syrup. For children between 6 and 12 years, a dose of ½ tablet (1/2 tablespoon) should be administered three times a day. The dose should not exceed more than 4 tablets or 4 tablespoons in the case of syrup. For children between 2 and 6 years old, a dose of ¼ or ½ tablespoon should be administered three times a day. The general dosage should not be more than two tablespoons. Summary of Celestamine dosage : Age Dose Frequency Maximum Dose >12 years 1 or 2 tablets (1 or 2 tablespoons) 4 times/day 8 tablets or 8 tablespoons 6 – 12 years ½ tablet (1/2 tablespoon) 3 times/day 4 tablets or 4 tablespoons 2 – 6 years ¼ or ½ tablespoon 3 times/day 2 tablespoons Buy Celestamine Online Special precautions If celestamine contains Betamathasone : As it contains Betamethasone as an active ingredient, adjustments of dosages in both adults and children may be required with remission or exacerbation of the clinical condition. Also, we should consider each patient’s individual response to therapy and exposure of the patient to psychological or physical stress such as injury, surgery or serious infection. Betamethasone is a Corticosteroid, so we should monitor the patient for at least up to one year following the discontinuation of long-term or high-dose corticosteroid therapy. Since complications of glucocorticoid therapy are dependent on duration and dosage of treatment, doctor should make the decision of risk or benefit for with each patient and their associated comorbidities. Since high dose or long-term corticosteroid therapy is associated with many side effects like osteoporosis (fragile bones), hypertension (high blood pressure), diabetes etc. the lowest possible dose of corticosteroid should be used to control the condition under treatment. A gradual reduction of dosage is recommended. When the drugs are used in patients who have other comorbidities like hypothyroidism and cirrhosis, adverse effects of corticosteroids are increased. Patients who take corticosteroids should be cautious if it’s used in patients with ocular herpes simplex because of possible risk of corneal perforation. Psychological derangements also reported with corticosteroid therapy and those who already have emotional instability or psychotic tendencies may be aggravated by corticosteroid drugs like betamethasone/celestamine preparations. These drugs should be used with caution conditions such as diverticulitis, fresh intestinal anastomoses, nonspecific ulcerative colitis, if there is a possible impending perforation, other pyogenic infection, abscess, or active or latent peptic ulcer disease, myasthenia gravis, osteoporosis, hypertension and renal insufficiency. Since Corticosteroids are immunosuppressive agents, they may mask some signs of ongoing infection, and new infections may also appear during use. When corticosteroids are used, decreased resistance and inability to localize infection may occur. Prolonged use of corticosteroid may lead to glaucoma with possible damage to the optic nerves, posterior subcapsular cataracts (mainly in children) and may increase the chance of secondary ocular infections due to fungi or viruses. Elevation of blood pressure, retention of salt and water, and increased excretion of potassium which lead to hypokalemic complications may also occur with average and large doses of corticosteroids. However, these side effects are less likely to occur when synthetic derivatives of corticosteroids are used except when used in large doses. Supplementation of potassium and restriction of Dietary salt may be considered for these patients. All corticosteroids will increase excretion of calcium. So, it’s advised to take calcium supplements or calcium rich foods to prevent complications that can occur with long term calcium deficiency. Since corticosteroids have immunosuppressive actions, patients should never be vaccinated for small pox. Other immunization procedures also should never be undertaken in patients who receive treatments with corticosteroids like betamethasone,

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Where can I download Medical Books for free?

Where can I download Medical Books for free?

Newsletter Where can I download Medical Books for free? There are hundreds of websites that offer users to download Medical books for free.  But most of them direct the users to 3rd party sites. Some links are broken and some are spammy too.  Medical Books are expensive. Most of the students cannot afford a single medical book because of their high cost.  Because of that many websites provide old books to their users to download for free.  To make it easy, we’ve made a separate page on our website for medical students. We’ve categorized all medical books into 29 sub-specialties to download the PDF books in a single click.  We also have medical study notes, presentations, and eBooks on our website that will be useful for you. You can get them by clicking the link below.  Click the button below to Download 570+ High-Yield Presentations in Emergencies, Orthopedics, Gynaecology & Obstetrics, Surgery, and Clinical Medicine Get LIFETIME Access to 570+ Medical Presenations Anatomy Anesthesiology Biochemistry Cardiology Dermatology Emergency Endocrinology ENT Examinations Forensic Med. Obs. & Gynae. Hematology Buy Now Buy Now Buy Now Medicine Microbiology Nephrology Neurology Oncology Ophthalmology Orthopaedics Paediatrics Parasitology Pathology Pharmacology Physiology Psychiatry Pulmonology Radiology Rheumatology Surgery Here are some commonly used medical books Anatomy Gray’s Anatomy for Students Chaurasia’s Handbook of General Anatomy (4th Ed) Ellis Anatomy LAST’s Anatomy, Regional and Applied Biochemistry Harper’s Illustrated Biochemistry Clinical Examinations Hutchisons Clinical Methods An Integrated Approach Dermatology Clinical Dermatology Handbook of Skin Emergency Medicine Books ABC of Resuscitation Emergency Medicine Oxford Handbook of Critical Care Endocrinology Books ABC of Diabetes Endocrinology – Easy Guide ENT Books  Clinical ENT at a Glance Forensic Medicine Textbook of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology Simpson’s Forensic Medicine  Gynecology & Obstetrics Books Gynaecology by Ten Teachers, 19th Edition- Ash Monga Obstetrics by Ten Teachers, 19E – Kenny, Louise, Baker, Philip N 100 Cases in Obstetrics and Gynaecology Mcgraw Hill Obstetrics And Gynecology Pretest Self Assessment And Review Oxford Handbook of Obstretics & Gyneacology Medicine Books Baliga 250 Cases in Medicine Kumar and Clark’s Clinical Medicine 9th Edition Harrison’s Manual of Medicine Microbiology Books Lippincott microbiology Neurology Books Oxford Handook of Neurology Color Atlas of Neurology Ophthalmology Color Atlas of Ophthalmology Orthopeadic Adam’s Outline of Orthopaedics Paediatrics Illustrated Textbook of Paediatrics Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics 20th Edition Paediatrics At a Glance Pediatric Emergency Medicine Hefti Pediatric Orthopedics in Practice Parasitology Paniker’s Textbook of Medical Parasitology Pathology Robbins Basic Pathology (9th Edition) Robbins & Cotran Pathologic Basis of Disease Pretest Pathophysiology Disturbances of Circulation – Notes Pharmacology Lippincott Illustrated Reviews Pharmacotherapy Casebook Netters Illustrated Pharmacology Physiology Ganongs Review of Medical Physiology Guyton Medical Physiology Psychiatry  Rutter’s Child And Adolescent Psychiatry Oxford Handbook of Psychiatry Kaplan and Sadock’s Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry Shorter Oxford Textbook of Psychiatry 7th Edition Radiology  A-Z of Chest Radiology 100 Cases in Radiology Surgery Bailey & Love Short Practice of Surgery Lecture Notes General Surgery- Ellis, Harold, Calne, Roy, Watson, Christopher Churchill’s Pocketbook of Surgery Click the button below to Download 570+ High-Yield Presentations in Emergencies, Orthopedics, Gynaecology & Obstetrics, Surgery, and Clinical Medicine Get LIFETIME Access to 570+ Medical Presenations There are some more popular search engines to download medical books 1) PDF Drive  PDF Drive is search engine for PDF files. As of today, they have more than 79 million eBooks to download for free. There are actually like google where you can search the books you need and you’ll be directed to the particular website. PDF Drive has categorized the books into several areas that make the search easier.  2) Z Library This is another world’s largest ebook library. Z-Library has millions of books and articles for students and researchers. You can search using the name of the book, the name of the author, or the ISBN number to find the book you need. The website structure is so simple, so you can find the book you need easily.  3) Library Genesis Library Genesis is a file-sharing website for scholarly journal articles, academic and general-interest books, images, comics, and magazines. This will be the perfect site for you to find the articles for your research purposes.  Share this : [Sassy_Social_Share total_shares=”ON”] Library Anatomy Anesthesiology Biochemistry Cardiology Dermatology Emergency Endocrinology ENT Examinations Forensic Med. Obs. & Gynae. Hematology Medicine Microbiology Nephrology Neurology Oncology Ophthalmology Orthopaedics Paediatrics Parasitology Pathology Pharmacology Physiology Psychiatry Pulmonology Radiology Rheumatology Surgery

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